Keywords and concepts:

Process | Learning Strategies | Style Communication Strategies | Strategy | Learner Strategy Training Field independent | Field dependent Left and right brain tendencies Ambiguity tolerance | Reflectivity/Impulsivity Visual Style | Auditory Style  |  Conclusions  |  Return to the top

* Deals with the cognitive variations in learning an L2.
* Discusses the 'layers of the onion" that represent points on the continuum from universal processes of learning to individual strategies involved in learning and L2

* Relates how learning styles and strategies are important for SLA

Defining the terms:

Process: * Process is the most general characteristic of all human learning

* Universal human processes as defined by Gagne (Chapter 4)
*  'Transfer,' for example,  is a universally used process for learning

Style:
* General characteristics of learning that apply to you as an individual
* Demonstrate a general pattern in your learning
* For example: You may be a visual learner but not as reflective as other learners

Strategies:
* Specific methods that you use for approaching a particular problem or task.
* Your own "Battle plans" that might vary from moment to moment, day to
day and year to year.
* Will vary intraindividually
* For example: Note taking, imagery or self monitoring are learning strategies

LEARNING STYLES

* Cognitive styles used in educational context
* Cognitive, affective and physiological traits that are relatively stable indicators of how learners respond to the learning environment. (Skehan)

* Styles mediate between emotion and cognition
* Determined by how you interact with your total environment
* Brown looks at the following styles which have received the attention of SLA research in recent years

1. Field independence/dependence
2. Left- and Right -Brain Functioning
3. Ambiguity Tolerance
4. Reflectivity and Impulsivity
5. Visual and Auditory Styles
Return to the top
 

Field independence: (FI)
* The ability to perceive an item or factor in a "field" of distraction
* Think of finding the hidden objects in a picture when you were a child.
* You see factors, objects, or thoughts, feelings, concepts 'independent' of the field surrounding it

Field dependence (FD)
* The tendency to be "dependent" on the entire field for understanding
* The individual parts are not easily perceived
*  Whole is clear and unified

Positive and negative factors for learners with field independence and dependence learning styles

FI: Positive: FD: Positive
* See the big picture Distinguish parts from the whole
* Able to understand general overview of a problem Tune out distractions

FI: Negative FD: Negative
* Tunnel vision may occur Details not important

SLA research indicates the following in regard to FI/FD learning styles
* FI/FD may be a somewhat a stable trait in adults
* Adults are dominant in one mode or the other
* Males tend to be FI in Western culture
* FI related to analytical factor in defining intelligence
* Authoritarian and agrarian societies tend to be more FD
* Democratic, competitive societies tend to be FI
* FI persons tend to be competitive, self confident and independent
* FD people tend to be socialized, gain their identity from the group and are more empathetic of feelings of others

Two conflicting hypotheses that relate FD/FI to SLA learning

1. FI relates to successful classroom learning that involves mastering of exercises, drills, detailed activities and tasks.    BUT:

2. FD people with their empathy for others and their dependence on the group and the help of others will be successful in communicative skills of L2.

Other conclusions regarding FI/FD

1. Valuable for differentiating child (children change their field dependence over time usually to more independence) and adult acquisition

2. Hard to prove that FI/FD is stable as it seems to vary with context (Chapelle shows a more balanced view saying that most learners are both FI and FD as contexts vary).

3. Should not conclude that either FI or FD style is more effective for L2 learning.

4. Learners should be able to vary their FD and FI to fit situation

5. Teachers must be aware that learners Field Dependence will change so they; teachers must allow for flexibility.

Return to the top
 

* Functions become lateralized as we grow (We choose which side of our brain to use for what function)
* We use both hemispheres to solve problems
* Both act as a team when solving and learning
* In SLA left/right brain functioning helps to define another continuun for learning
* Left-brain (left-hemisphere): Usually associated with logical analytical thought, math and linear processing
* Right-brained (right-hemisphere): Usually visual, tactile and auditory images Holistic processing, emotional, integrative

Left/right brained style in regard to SLA

* Some language methods have failed by appealing to much to left-brain processes
* Left-brain may prefer deductive style of teaching
* Right-brain learners more successful in inductive classroom

separate words
gathering the specifics of language sequences
abstraction
classification
labeling and reorganization generalizations
whole images
artistic expressions
metaphors

3. AMBIGUITY TOLERANCE
*  The degree to which you are willing to accept ideas that go against or are totally unknown in your own belief system
*  Are you open-minded? Or are you more closed to new ideas?

Tolerance of ambiguity, Advantages:

* Learner is accepting of much contradictory information in L2
* Learner will entertain innovation
* Disadvantages:
* Learner may become TOO accepting
* Learner may not subsume the correct information
* Learner may not integrate rules into a whole system of L2

Intolerance of Ambiguity, Disadvantages
* Learner may close mind early in the learning game
* Learner may become rigid in learning
* Mind is too narrow to be creative

* SLA research shows that a tolerance for ambiguity is beneficial for L2 learning, but there has been little research done thus far on this topic.

4. REFLECTIVITY AND IMPULSIVITY
* Reflectivity: A learning style that produces a slower more calculated answer
* Impulsivity: A learning style that produces a quick, gambling answer

Research tool used to measure reflectivity/impulsivity:
          Matching Familiar Figures Test (MFFT)
          Locate similar items among many

What the SLA research shows:

* Children who are reflective tend to make fewer errors (Kagan)
* Reflective learners may be better an inductive learning (Kagan, Pearson and Welch)
* Reflective learners may be slower, but more accurate in reading (Doron)
* Impulsive students are usually faster readers

* Teachers tend to judge errors too harshly
* Need to give both reflective and impulsive students opportunities to speak and become engaged in the classroom activities
* Need patience for the reflective learner who may not speak as often
* Implusive learner goes through stages of IL (Interlanguage) faster, while reflective learner's seem to lag behind
* But, even though reflective learners may stay at a stage longer, they
then may leap ahead further
Return to the top

Visual learners: prefer reading, studying charts, drawings
Auditory learners: listening to tapes, listening to lectures

SLA research indicates:
* Crosscultural study showed Korean students more visually oriented than NS Americans (Reid)
* Japanese least auditory
* Also necessary to look age, length of time in US, gender
* Hard to generalize visual/auditory learning styles along cultural linguistic lines

STRATEGIES

SLA has distinguished two types of strategies

1. Learning strategies: Relate to input, processing, storage, memory and retrieval of information

2. Communication strategies: relate to output expressing ourselves, deliver messages to others.

1. Metacognitive: Indicates an executive decision about learning (e.g. planning for learning, thinking about learning) (Indirect strategy)

2. Cognitive: Involve direct manipulation of the learning of the material, e. g. note taking, grouping (Direct strategy)

3. Socioaffective: Transacting with others, e.g. cooperation, questioning

Strategies L2 learners employ when they need or want to communicate before communicative competence. (See Tarone's taxonomy, p. 119 and Chesterfield and Chesterfield's taxonomy, pp. 122-123)
 
1. Avoidance: Avoids use of known or partially known form to reduce embarrassment and error likelihood. (Could be lexical or topical avoidance)

2. Prefabricated patterns: Relies on formulaic speech, certain stock phrases already in the interlanguage and known to work. Old reliable phrases, learned by rote. The underlying structure may not be understood so errors may occur

3. Appeal to authority: Asks for help from a NS or may consult bi-lingual dictionary. May ask, "How do you say_______?"

4. Language switch: Begins to speak NL intermixed with TL hoping listener will at least understand the point of the communication.

Return to the top
 

The application of learner strategies and communication strategies to classroom learning

Training should involve:
* Teaching learners how to learn
* Teaching some technical know how of learner strategies

How to do this?

1. Help students become aware of their own styles and strategies
2. Embed strategy practice into techniques and materials
3. Compensatory techniques are practiced to help S overcome blocks to learning
4. See Rebecca Oxford's guide for teachers of learning strategy training PP. 126-127

*  Can not classify which styles and strategies are 'best' for successful L2 learning
*  Teachers need to recognize and understand variety of cognitive styles and strategies in each learner
*  Provide learners with a variety of opportunities for reaching autonomy for learning