Reference 1 | Reference 2 | Reference 3 | Reference 4 | Reference 5
Reference:
Biber, D. (1988). Variation Across Speech and Writing (pp. 3-27, 170-198). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Summary:
This study developed out of an effort to determine whether linguistic distinctions exist between speech and writing. Earlier researchers tended to view either speech or writing as derivative of the other and disagreed as to which represents the primary, authentic form of a language. The author, however, following D.H. Hymes and others, argues that both represent distinct, though related systems.
Previous analyses proceeded from the assumption of one or more functional dimensions (defined as informal/formal, restricted/elaborated, abstract/concrete, etc.) often identified with a particular genre or genres. On this basis, the linguistic features of the given function(s) were identified; however, no statistical analysis of texts was done to determine whether or not such identified features actually co-occurred frequently in the texts.
In contrast, the author's approach to discourse analysis begins from an analysis of texts of many functional types, or genres, to determine the frequency of particular linguistic features in each and to identify any patterns of co-occurrence. In this way, he establishes the characteristics of six linguistic dimensions, which can then be categorized by function. Functional dimensions are thus determined on the basis of their co-occurring linguistic features, instead of the other way around; from the same basis, their relative importance in a text and whether they overlap or stand independently can also be distinguished.
This approach enables researchers to identify discrete sets of dimensions that appear in a group of texts and pinpoint the basis for linguistic variation among them. The relationships between texts of different genres can be determined by comparing them on the basis of multiple dimensions--a single dimension is insufficient. As a result of this analysis, Biber concludes that there is no set of dimensions that specifically distinguishes speech from writing. He also concludes that functional dimensions are not contrasting absolutes, but represent ends of a continuum along which texts of different types might fall.
The eighth chapter of this study examines variations within genres and distinguishes between genres and text types: the former are classified according to purpose and topic, whereas the latter are determined solely on the basis of linguistic form. Thus, texts from such different genres as, for example, literature and social work case studies might share the same narrative style of text form.
In addition, genres differ widely from one another on the basis of internal linguistic variation due to the inclusion more or less similar sub-genres; for example, academic writing, with its numerous and quite different sub-genres, has a much broader range of linguistic variation in all dimensions than does personal correspondence. Range of variation within a single genre may differ substantially between dimensions as well. However, a significant amount of variation within genres appears to be due not to the existence of sub-genres but to the inadequacy of defining criteria of certain genres.
"For each genre we need to know the particular ways in which it is oral and the ways in which it is literate. Thus the present study attempts to identify the linguistic parameters along which genres vary, so that any individual genre can be located within an 'oral' and 'literate' space, specifying both the nature and the extent of the differences and similarities between that genre and the range of other genres in English." (p. 55).
This succinctly spells out the thrust of Biber's approach toward language production: neither genre nor spoken/written classification are ultimately significant; it is the discourse type, established by linguistic features, that is the defining factor.
The teaching of grammar for ESL students based on this approach would include the following features:
Included in chapter 8 are graphs showing the scope of linguistic variation of 12 genres along 6 dimensions. Genres included in the graphs are:
The six dimensions of text types are:
Also included are graphs depicting the range of mean scores for all dimensions of selected sub-genres of the press reportage, broadcast, academic prose, and telephone conversation genres.
Reference:
Byrd, P. Grammar in the composition syllabus. In Pat Byrd and Joy Reid, Grammar in the composition class. <http://www.gsu.edu/eslhpb/grammar/from.htm> (1997, February 16).
The article is directed primarily toward English for Academic Purpose (EAP) programs that must equip ESL students with the language skills necessary to function in an American university environment. Both textbook comprehension and student writing are addressed, using two dimensions from Biber's (1988) approach--past time narrative and informational production--as well as various combinations of both.
Byrd discusses the grammatical characteristics of a variety of sub-genres American students are required to comprehend and reproduce within the broader genre of academic discourse:
EAP programs that structure curricula around the grammar requirements of these sub-genres most effectively prepare ESL students for academic work. Such programs include authentic text comprehension and writing exercises at every level of proficiency, focusing on the grammatical features of academic discourse that students will have to use. Grammar is taught in clusters according to the features that occur in the texts. Students at all levels practice the same grammar features contained in the various sub-genres. Levels of proficiency are distinguished by gradiations in difficulty in the reading and writing exercises, but students continue to encounter the same grammar features at each level. Such an approach prepares students for the variety of courses they will take in a college or university program.
"Working from an understanding of the communicative requirements of the degree courses taken by our students does not mean that ESL programs are responsible for preparing students with the content of those courses...However, we can help students learn to recognize how language is used differently in the different courses that they are required to take, developing not just their 'English' but also their ability to think about how to use their English language skills to meet different academic demands." (p. 1)
The quote clearly summarizes the way discourse analysis can enable an ESL program to most effectively meet the needs of students who need the skills to function in an academic environment.
Biber, D. Variation Across Speech and Writing. (1988). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
ESL teaching applications of Biber's approach to discourse analysis are already discussed substantively in the article, and are amply illustrated by references to accompanying text samples.
The article includes 12 sample narratives from a variety of genres together with a chart to use for analyzing grammatical features in each ( verb tenses, noun types, personal pronouns, adverbials, and logical connectors). Endnote 12 is helpful here (it refers to the first narrative sample from The Yearling on p. 1 of the "Narrative Samples" appendix, not to any passage in the main body of the article--rather confusing), as it features an example of this sort of grammatical analysis.
Joo, Y.S. (1997). Teaching grammar FROM discourse for Korean students in Korea. In Modules to Teach Grammar FROM Discourse. Journal of English Grammar on the Web, 1. <http://www.gsu.edu/~wwwesl/jegw/> (1997, February 16).
This is an English writing course design project aimed at low to intermediate level Korean university students and based on a discourse analysis approach. Its most striking characteristic is its inclusion of culture-specific educational background information and learning style analysis which utilize the author's personal experience together with published reference material.
The author briefly sums up a few key texts on discourse analysis and elaborates on the past time narrative discourse type, although she includes other discourse types in her course design as well. Her summary also contains a detailed table describing the individual grammar features taken from Biber's (1988) criteria for narrative discourse. Together with the form and function of features, the table includes specific problems that ESL/EFL students may have with each feature. (It is not clear, however, whether this list of problems is adapted from a reference, or whether Joo has compiled the list from previous research or personal observation.)
The teaching model itself is organized around four discourse types (involved, narrative, informational, and persuasive) and combines oral, reading and written activities for each type. The course organization specifically takes into account student educational background and learning styles. A wide variety of teaching materials is used: crossword puzzles, time tables, and jigsaw story writing are included alongside authentic texts.
"...English education is highly focused on grammar and reading until high school and on grammar, reading, and listening, and oral communication in college. Considering this tradition of English education and relatively less urgent needs of writing for Korean students, this module will take a whole language approach in which one deals with writing and grammar along with reading and oral communication (Brown, 1994)....[Consequently,] the problems caused by dramatic language change from Korean to English during their second year will be reduced. In addition, if the students are exposed to many different content areas, their background knowledge will also increase." (p. 11).
A good example of the way that a discourse analysis teaching approach can address culture-specific educational needs of students.
Brown, H. (1994). Teaching by
principle: An interactive approach to language pedagogy.
NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Return to Top
This module has some potentially interesting implications for both ESL and EFL teaching and research. The nature of the English educational background of students could be a very well be a significant factor in determining the most effective text types from which to begin grammar instruction, and also in determining which grammar constructions might be the easiest and most difficult for the students. It would be worthwhile, I think, to discover whether some knowledge on the part of an EFL teacher of the linguistic structure of the students' native language and of the genre styles of their native discourse traditions would have an effect on their learning ability, particularly if the course was organized around discourse types.
Even though this would be more difficult in the largely heterogeneous ESL classes typical in the US, one would think that it would be possible for a teacher to acquire salient background information about the general language/culture areas of his/her students. For example, on the basis of research data, groups of students who are frequently represented in ESL classrooms might be classified according to Spanish language (Central and South America), East Asian (China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam), or Slavic (Russia and parts of Easter Europe) backgrounds, among others. Knowing something about the genre styles of these backgrounds would assist in developing an effective discourse approach. Moreover, since students from certain cultural/linguistic groups tend to appear over and over again in classes, teachers could surely continue to develop background familiarity over time.
The section on "Characteristics of Past Time Narrative" (p. 6) is quite helpful as an example for identifying past time narrative grammar features in sample texts, which can then be used for cloze and other exercises. The accompanying table is useful also, especially for its detailing of student problems. The culture-specific grammar teaching suggestions were thought-provoking and could serve as a springboard for creative adaptation of the discourse analysis approach for specific educational needs.
Riddle, E. (1986). The meaning and discourse function of the past tense in English. TESOL Quarterly, 20, 267-286.
Why ESL students have difficulty using the past tense in a consistent manner is the point of departure for this study, which focuses on an analysis of the multiple uses of the simple past in a variety of discourse functions. The author maintains that the past tense is traditionally taught as having the straightforward meaning of completed action; however, she argues that in actuality the past tense simply denotes action or state of being that was true before the time of speech and that completion is not actually part of the meaning of the simple past.
The selection of past versus present tense, therefore, is highly dependent on the narrator's purpose and point of view in both direct and indirect speech. Consequently, the reason for usage of past over present tense in indirect speech is not simply due to tense-harmony, but to the intent and context of the utterance. The past tense may also be used to describe a condition that is currently extant but is mentioned for its past relevance to the speaker; similarly, the sense of completion which is conveyed by past tense usage is actually indicated by context, rather than being inherent in the basic meaning.
In direct discourse, the past tense is critically connected to a speaker's purpose and point of view when selected to emphasize 1) a past experience, whether or not its circumstances still hold true; or 2) background information. A common example of the former case in academic usage is reference to a deceased person's thoughts or beliefs, even if still true: "According to Copernicus, the earth revolved around the sun..." [emphasis added]. (p. 271).
In contrast, if the emphasis is on the content of the deceased person's still-extant work, the present tense is usually used. Similarly, information that is presented as historical background in academic writing is recorded in the past tense, while the present tense is used for the work or research results under discussion. The nuances of background/foreground and past association/present relevance distinctions in both direct and indirect speech are discussed in greater detail.
The author contends that many of the tense errors committed by ESL students can be traced to inadequate understanding of the tense meaning and the narrative purpose and point of view. She concludes with teaching suggestions ranging from student analyses of tense in a variety of text genres to cloze exercises, essays of past experiences with still-extant situations (travels, scenery descriptions, etc.) to role-playing.
"In addition to the objective temporal relationship between the time of a situation...and speech time, the speaker's point of view and purpose in communicating play a crucial role in the choice between the past and present tenses. A situation whose time frame extends from the past to the present may be described in the past...if the purpose is to present information or ask a question from a past point of view." (p. 269).
The quotation pinpoints the author's focus on the essential character of narrative context to account for past versus present tense usage, emphasizing that the correct usage of the past tense cannot be grasped without comprehending the purpose and viewpoint of the text (oral or written) as a whole.
For an ESL teacher, this would be a good complement to Biber's delineation of narrative as a discourse type in designing a text-based grammar course. Texts from various genres could be examined by the students, not only from the standpoint of the grammar clusters that Biber lists, but also from the standpoint of background versus foreground narrative and from the purpose and viewpoint of the narrator. Students could learn to identify these features across genre lines and reproduce them themselves in a variety of written and oral exercises. Riddle's discussion of tense in indirect speech would be quite useful, not only in oral exercises but also in student analysis of literature texts, literary criticism, political and sociological theory, intellectual history, and other genres.
I liked the author's teaching suggestions, especially student analysis of tense in various texts prior to any teacher explanation, student collection of authentic text examples of past tense, and exercises focusing on the completive and noncompletive past, alternating with present references. Even though the author's bibliography is pre-Biber, it still looks useful.
Godfrey, D.L. (1980). A Discourse Analysis of Tense in Adult ESL Monologues. In D. Larsen-Freeman (Ed.), Discourse Analysis in Second Language Research (pp. 92-110). Rowley, Mass: Newbury House Publishers, Inc.
The author's study of tense usage by 20 ESL students at the University of Michigan's English Language revealed, surprisingly, that error rates did not decrease steadily with a rise in the level of student proficiency. The article discusses the data in some detail and explains the reasons for the deviation from expected error rates. The resulting interpretation discloses several aspects of error production in tense usage: avoidance of tense, variation in topic and genre, distractions to the student's attention resulting from deviations in the main narrative, and student adoption of more sophisticated grammatical structures.
Of the 20 students, half were Japanese speakers and half were Spanish speakers. Five levels of proficiency were represented in each group. The students viewed a 12 minute film of a mythological folktale, then taped a recapitulation of the story and an evaluation of the film as an ESL resource, both in English, followed by a summary of the film in their native language. (Data from the third section was not a part of the study.)
Error rates in the usage of verb tense were calculated and analyzed. Overall, the Level I students had slightly less tense errors than Level II students, Levels III and IV were nearly identical, and Level V was much lower than the rest. The highest error rates occurred in Part One of the study, with relatively little difference among all of the levels except for the fifth, which was drastically lower than the rest. In Part Two, Level I students made no errors at all, and Level IV students' error rate was higher than Level III students. Except for the error-free Level I group, the Level V error rate was again significantly lower than those of all the other groups.
A closer analysis of the data, however, revealed that one reason for unexpectedly lower error rates in the beginning levels was simply that some students avoided using past tense verbs in their narrative summary and some were apparently unaware of tense forms. At first glance they seemed to use present tense verbs accurately, but upon closer examination were actually using generic verb forms and had disregarded verb tense altogether. Beginning students who tried to use a past tense continuity had high error rates, but one Level IV student who tried to use a historic present tense continuity also had a much higher error rate than others in his level who had used past tense forms.
Thus, use of the past tense was obviously difficult for beginning students, but as the high intermediate student demonstrated, correct use of the historic present tense in narration is even more complex and challenging for ESL students. The narrative discourse form itself, as exemplified in Part One of the exercise, proved to be more difficult than the evaluative discourse form of Part Two, with its predominance of timeless generic verbs and present tense verbs expressing belief and judgement.
Students also had difficulty with maintaining tense continuity throughout their monologues. When beginning students started to mark for past tense, they overcorrected and inflected verbs which should have been left unmarked. Intermediate students had problems maintaining tense continuity because their attention was distracted by attempts to use more complex linguistic structures and vocabulary. Errors of higher level students also stemmed from distractions caused by embeddings, interruptions in the narrative necessitating tense changes, neighboring tenses, and subtopics.
"The second modification to Chafe's framework recognizes the fact that the tenses of generic verbs do not interrupt ongoing tenses at random and that generic verb tenses themselves obey secondary tense constraints. The seeming interruption of a tense constraint by a generic verb of a different tense stems from the subordination of information with a different time reference to the topic whose time reference has determined the discourse constraint." (p. 94).
The quotation illustrates the kind of complexity of tense usage in narratives which ESL students must grapple with, and it underscores the necessity of dealing with tense at the discourse level and concentrating on occasions of shift in tense forms.
Chafe, W.L. (1972). Discourse structure and human knowledge. In Freedle, R.O., and J.B. Carroll (eds.), Language Comprehension and the Acquisition of Knowledge. Washington, D.C.: V.H. Winston & Sons
A grammar course organized around such discourse types as past time narrative and informational production would benefit from the results of this study, especially the data concerning tense continuity maintenance. Many difficulties in reproducing past time narrative seem to center on narrative interruption and tense change that signals a shift in purpose: for example, the shift from narrative to evaluation in a historical monograph, or from background to foreground in literature. Such areas of difficulty would merit concentrated attention.
In addition, the study provides a reminder that proficiency in the use of the historic present tense, although not often covered as such in ESL grammar textbooks, is expected in such academic and popular subgenres as literary criticism and book/theatre/movie reviews. Students would benefit from practice in this specialized narrative type as well.
Tables of the mean error rates all groups are reproduced; the study also features a detailed discussion and comparison of problems of individual students in each group. It should be noted that the study is 17 years old--whether or not its conclusions are dated is a question for consideration, although this reviewer is not qualified to make such an assessment.
Return to: English Grammar on the Web Go to: Noun Counting Online