Exemplification and the Example 

Patricia Byrd, Chui-Wei Cecilia Liu, Alan Mobley, Angelo Pitillo, Susan Rolf Silva, and Sun Shu-Wen
Department of Applied Linguistics & English as a Second Language 
Georgia State University
Atlanta, Georgia USA 

Examples in the Literature on Second Language Acquisition
Definitions for "Exemplification" and "Example"
Types of Examples: Positive, Negative, Non-, and Best | Student Use of Examples
Characteristics of Good Examples | Checklist for the Preparation of Examples
References



I. Examples in the Literature on Second Language Acquisition 

Discussions of ESL/EFL materials provide activities teachers can use to supplement published textbooks (Ur 1988), methods to evaluate textbooks prior to selection (Skierso 1991), or clarify relationships between materials and curriculum or syllabi (Dubin and Olshtain 1986). English for Specific Purposes has focused on characteristics of effective materials with an emphasis on exercise types and content (Johns and Dudley-Evans, 1991). Language acquisition studies have delved into various issues involving input, including the "logical problem of language acquisition" (gaining competence from insufficient input) (Gass and Schachter, 1989), error correction (Bley-Vroman, 1989), and of course the input hypothesis (Krashen, 1982). 
          In contrast to these issues, little has been written about the use of exemplification and examples in ESL/EFL classroom instruction and materials. While Sweet (1964) defines characteristics of "good examples" in second language teaching, and Moon (1990) reports on the use of examples in a second language teaching project focused on issues in artificial intelligence, attempts to deal directly with exemplification and examples in formal instructional settings are more likely to be found in studies from other disciplines: literary criticism (Serridge, 1980), the teaching of academic subjects including composition (Grow, 1987; Haack, 1972), instructional technology (Golden, A.R., Bentti, F.E., and Reigeluth, C.M., 1988), instructional design (McCallum, Apking, and Snyder, 1987; Yelon and Massa, 1987), computer science (Berwick, 1986), and psychology (Pirolli, 1985). In this paper, we suggest answers for the following questions as they pertain to ESL/EFL: (1) What is exemplification? (2) What is an example? (3) How do ESL students use examples from their textbooks and in their language learning? (4) What characteristics make one example better than another, or what is a "good example"? 

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II. Definitions for "Exemplification" and "Example" 

Exemplification is a basic communication strategy used in the negotiation of meaning in many different contexts, occurring in both spoken and written language. In a language text, exemplification plays a key part in the interactive process between reader and text. The reading of textbook materials involves the same interactive processes widely accepted as basic to reading of other materials (e.g., Carrell and Eisterhold, 1983). The feedback-response steps are anticipated by the author of the instructional materials who provides examples in anticipation of requests for clarification from the reader. 
          Sirridge (1980) makes an important point about the nature of exemplification as part of the communication process: all acts of communication (from poems to conversations) can be viewed both as being the thing itself (a particular poem or a particular conversation) and at the same time as being an example of the thing (a representative of a type, category, or genre). As language learners, we have had the experience of participating in a meaningful conversation and at the same time thinking "ah, that's how they do it" or "isn't that an interesting way to say it." One irony of language teaching seems to be that students might be finding examples in communication the teacher thinks is focused on transmission of ideas and/or emotions. We need to be aware that the line between language used for exemplification and language used for other purposes is extremely thin. 
          Thus, exemplification is a communication process through which meaning is clarified by the use of linguistic forms called examples. While example can refer to a single word or sentence used to illustrate grammar rules, it is better seen as a larger category capable of use in many other areas of language teaching. Designers of instructional materials for use in business and personnel development such as Yelon and Massa (1987) clearly think of example as referring to larger discourse units including case studies. Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary (1990) includes three definitions for example:

1: a particular single item, fact, incident, or aspect that is representative
of all of a group or type 

2: a parallel or closely similar case esp. when serving as a precedent or model 

3: an instance (as in a problem to be solved) serving to illustrate a rule or precept or to act as an exercise in the application of a rule (p. 431)

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  III. Types of Examples: Positive, Negative, Non-, and Best 

While the terms are not used with complete consistency, four subcategories are frequently referred to in the literature on exemplification: positive example, negative example, non-example, and best example. The basic example is often termed the positive example. A negative example illustrates a mistake or the wrong way to do something: "*The students was confused." A non-example, on the other hand, illustrates what is not being talked about; it shows things that are not part of the topic under discussion: "Regular nouns form their plural by adding -s. Child is not a regular noun because its plural is children." A best example shows a typical member of a group: "Poe's "The Bells" shows the use of alliteration." Another way of thinking about best examples is that they provide the most appropriate example in a particular setting. For example, the best example of the word tree would be different in Minnesota (pine? fir?) and in Saudi Arabia (palm?). 
          Three of these example types can be combined in what we call the comparative example: two or more forms are illustrated in the same set of materials to demonstrate their differences. These comparative examples involve positive, negative, and non-examples to illustrate how the forms should and should not be used. A standard comparative set in ESL materials focuses on the simple past tense and the present perfect verb forms. 
          Sirridge (1980) points out a basic characteristic of an example: its meaning can change from one context to another. This characteristic is important for the language instructor because of the danger of assuming an example can stand on its own without commentary to clarify its purpose. A single sentence could be viewed as illustrating any of several different points about English grammar. Moon (1990) comments that one of the purposes of the instructional materials that accompany examples is to clarify the purpose of the example. Another purpose for examples is pointed out by Moon (1990): examples give details of the functioning of the rule that are not included in the explanatory materials. This purpose for an example underscores the interdependence of grammar rule and illustrative example: neither is complete without the other. 
          One of the few discussions of the characteristics of examples in second language learning and teaching is provided by Sweet in his Practical Study of Languages (1964), where he discusses principles to guide the selection and use of examples in the teaching and learning of grammar. While he seems to be thinking of single words or sentences that are given with a generalization about the language, much of what he has to say is appropriate for the other types of examples:

  1. Examples help tie the individual rule to the language as a whole. 
  2. An example "explains, illustrates, and justifies" the rule of grammar which it accompanies. 
  3. An example serves as a pattern to be used in analyzing other language samples by the student in subsequent encounters with the language. 
  4. Rules are not the primary purpose of study--using the language is. 
  5. Therefore, examples are more important than rules. "The rules are mere stepping-stones to the understanding of the examples..." (pp. 130-131). 
          Not only grammar rules but many other aspects of a language and its use are taught through examples. In reading and writing classes, teachers provide examples of the ways that higher discourse units function, and in oral communication classes examples are provided of the ways in which conversations are begun, conducted, and concluded. Ponder and Powell (1989) illustrates the double use second language teachers make of reading materials, mining them for information and content and at the same time using them as models to practice reading skills (looking for the main idea, timed reading, and etc.). Additionally, from the description of role plays in Dubin and Olshtain (1986), it is clear that this activity provides both for authentic communication and for carrying out communication in situations that are examples of the real. In sum, examples are used in all types of language teaching including but not limited to grammar lessons and materials.

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  IV. Student Use of Examples 

In addition to studying the literature on examples, we wanted to find out more about how ESL students actually use the examples in their textbooks. Five non-native English speaking students were interviewed: two students were from Taiwan and one each came from Peru, Thailand, and Turkey. All were either studying ESL at high intermediate/advanced levels or were university students who had recently completed their study of ESL. They provided the following insights into how students interact with examples and with textual materials. 
          As would be anticipated from research into learning and study styles (Harnett, 1985), the students fell into two categories: one set preferred to focus on rules and to use examples to understand rules (holistic, deductive learners) while the other set preferred to focus on examples and to infer and confirm rules through the study of examples (analytical, inductive learners). However, one student who described himself as a rule-oriented learner was observed to place most of his attention on reading and understanding examples when presented with a text he had never studied before. 
          Working with students learning principles of mechanical physics, Chi, Bassok, Lewis, Reiman, and Glaser (1987) analyzed the ability of good students to generalize from examples. ("Good" students were those who performed better in tests of their knowledge and were able to solve new problems that differed slightly from the worked-out problems that they had studied.) The "good" students differed from the "poor" students in the following ways: "good students" (1) explained the examples to themselves; (2) related the examples to the general principles given in the text materials; (3) knew when they did not know or did not understand; (4) looked at the examples to find particular information; (5) because they had particular goals in mind when reading an example, tended to read less of it and to stop reading when they had the information they needed to solve the problem; and (6) seemed to use the examples as references in later study for tests. 
          The students in our project indicated they use examples for the following purposes, which are similar to the uses made by the "good" students in Chi, Bassok, Lewis, Reiman, and Glaser (1987). (These ESL students used the term "rule" where the physics students talked about "principles.")

1. to check the accuracy of a rule
2. to practice a rule
3. to understand a rule
4. to help in memorizing a rule
5. to help in recalling a rule (especially in test situations) 
6. as a source for language to be used in other settings
In other words, the students were moving back and forth between the example and the related generalization given in the text, using the examples not just as tools for understanding how English works but also as resources for language to use in other contexts. 
          All five students made strong recommendations about the formatting of examples in materials to make them easier to use: examples should be (1) in a typeface different from that of other materials in the text and (2) set apart from the rest of the text so that they are easy to find. They were unanimous in advocating the presentation of grammatical material in charts and boxes that bring together related sets of examples along with limited amounts of commentary. Analysis of study and lecture notes prepared by one student showed that she reorganized some textbook material into a chart because she found it easier to learn in that format. 
          No matter what learning style they preferred, the students all gave serious attention to the examples in their textbooks. The close attention the students give to examples suggests that both teachers and materials writers need to examine carefully the factors that make examples most useful for students.

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  V. Characteristics of Good Examples

But what makes one example better than another one? What guidelines exist to help the language teacher and materials writer? In their advice to instructional development specialists, Yelon and Massa (1987) provide an overview of that should be useful for language teachers and materials writers: Good examples are accurate, clear, attractive, and transferable. "Accuracy" includes both having correct information and fitting the lesson being taught. "Clarity" means that the example is concrete, brief, written in language that will be understood by the students, and presented so that its purposes and meaning are immediately evident. "Attractiveness" is defined as "interesting," a characteristic that is achieved by using content that is related to the "experiences, interests, or aspirations of the students.... (Yelon and Massa, 1987, 15). Defining what is "interesting" to another person is extremely difficult, especially if "interesting" is taken to mean "amusing." Indeed, because attempts at humor across cultures often fail (Nelson 1987), they should be approached with great care in all ESL materials and in EFL materials in particular. "Transferability" involves having learning occur so that the students can transfer the information to other settings. To Yelon and Massa, transfer is unlikely to occur through the use of only one example. As a result, they recommend that important concepts be taught through an interrelated set of examples that differ in difficulty and focus on various parts of the concept. Similarly, Sweet advises: "Each grammar rule must have an example. If a rule has subdivision, then an example should be given for each part of the rule " (p. 132). 

In addition, Sweet (1964:130-133) presents these characteristics of "good" examples. 

  1. They illustrate or confirm the rule clearly. They are unambiguous. 
  2. They are understandable without more context. 
  3. They are as concrete as possible, the more concrete the better-especially in giving words and vocabulary for beginners. 
  4. They do not contain difficult or rare vocabulary or irregular forms that are not involved in the particular rule being illustrated. 
Sweet also includes aspects of good examples that grow out of the unique problems of language learning and teaching:
  1. Lists of prepositions, conjunctions, or other form-words are a "mere waste of space" in elementary practical grammar because they mean nothing to the beginning student. 
  2. The example must be in the language that is being taught. 
  3. He insists that examples that are made up by the teacher or materials writer are not as good as those collected from a variety of authentic writings. 
Good examples can be powerful tools for the language teacher and the language learner--and for the materials writer. A "Checklist for the Preparation of Examples" is provided in an appendix to this article that can be used in the creation of effective examples. However, even the best of examples will go to waste if not embedded in an effective presentation by the teacher and in effective study by the student. Thus, more attention needs to be paid to the ways in which classroom teachers can use examples in the presentation and practice of ESL. Yelon and Massa (1987:14) state that examples are used by instructors "to motivate, to explain, to practice, and to test." Further thought needs to be given to how ESL teachers can use examples for those and other purposes. Finally, we also need detailed information about ways in which skillful (and unskillful) language learners use examples as part of their battery of learning skills. 

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  VI. Checklist for the Preparation of Examples 
  I. Accurate   1. Pedagogical Accuracy: The example accurately reflects the language being studied. 

2. Linguistic Accuracy: The example uses authentic language. 

3. Accurate Content:  The information in the examples is correct. 

4. Cultural Accuracy: The examples are sensitive to the cultural backgrounds of the students and avoid so far as possible offensive content. 
       
  II. Clear   1. Free of language not involved in the particular point being illustrated. 

2. Free of difficult or rare vocabulary. 

3. Free of irrelevant irregularities
     
  III. Interesting   1. Based on the background and educational, career, or job plans of the students 

2. Credible and realistic 

3. Novel in content and presentation within appropriate cultural boundaries 

4. Humor used carefully with sensitivity to cultural differences 
       
  IV. Usable in Other Contexts, providing enough information for learning    1. Interrelated sets of examples for complex content 

2. Each aspect of a rule or principle given an example 
       
  V. Contextualized   1. Commentary or instructional contextualization provided to point out the concept being illustrated 

2. Free-standing lists of words and sentences avoided 
       
  VI. Formatted attractively and clearly    1. Presented in a style that makes the examples easily distinguished from other instructional material 

2. Presented in tables and charts where appropriate 

3. Divided into appropriate chunks of material 
       

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References

Bley-Vroman, R. (1989). What is the logical problem of foreign language learning? In S. Gass and J. Schachter (Eds.), Linguistic perspectives on second language acquisition, pp. 41-68. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Carrell, P. and Eisterhold, J.C. (1983). Schema theory and ESL reading pedagogy. TESOL Quarterly, 17(4), 553-573. 

Chi, M.T.H., Bassok, M., Lewis, M.W., Reiman, P. and Glaser, R. (1987) Self-explanations: How students study and use examples in learning to solve problems. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, Learning Research and Development Center. Eric Documents: ED2966291 CS009198. 

Dubin and Olshtain. (1986). Course design: Developing programs and materials for language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 

Gass, S. and Schachter, J. (1989) Introduction. In Gass, S. and Schachter, J. (Eds.) Linguistic perspectives on second language acquisition, pp. 1-9. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 

Golden, A.R., Bentti, F.E., and Reigeluth, C.M. (1988). The effects of nonexamples on procedure learning. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 16(3), 253-63.

Grow, G. (1987). Teaching writing through negative examples. Journal of Teaching and Writing, 6(2), 239-244.

Haack, P.A. (1972). Use of positive and negative examples in teaching the concept of musical style. Journal of Research in Music Education, 20(4), 456-61.

Harnett, D.D. (1985). Cognitive style and second language learning." In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.) Beyond basics: Issues and research in TESOL. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Johns, A. and Dudley-Evans, T. (1991). English for specific purposes: International in scope, specific in purpose. TESOL Quarterly. 25(2), 297-314. 

Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

McCallum, D.V., Apking, A. M., and Snyder, D.S. (1987). Design tactics for using examples: A reader participation article. Performance and Instruction, November/December, 37-45.

Moon, C.E. (1990). The roles of instructions and examples in learning a second language from an instructional text: A computational model. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan.) Dissertation Abstracts International, 51/07-B, 3457.

Nelson, G.L. (1987). Culture's role in reading comprehension: A schema theoretical approach. Journal of Reading, 424-429. 

Ponder, R. and Powell, W. (1989). Sourcebooks in ESL instruction. Eric Documents ED307804.

Skierso, Alexandra. (1991). Textbook selection and evaluation. In Marianne Celce-Murcia (Ed.) Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (2nd ed., pp. 432-453). NY: Newbury House. 

Sirridge, Mary. (1980). The moral of the story: Exemplification and the literary work. Philosophical Studies 38, 391-402. 

Sweet, Henry. (1964). The practical study of languages: A guide for teachers and learners. London: Oxford University Press. 

Ur, Penny. (1988). Grammar practice activities: A practical guide for teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 

Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. (1990). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc.

Yelon, S. and Massa M. (1987). Heuristics for creating examples. Performance and Instruction. October, 13-17.

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